Tudor Parliaments were an essential aspect of English
government and administration in the sixteenth century. In fact, 16th
century government did less than 21st century governments because
they are the Reformation Parliament of 1529-1536. They have existed longer than
any previous Parliament by enacting a serious of
statutes, which transformed the relationship between the English Crown, the
English people and the Church, as well as formally incorporating the
principality of Wales into the kingdom of England.
In
16th century, tax was smaller proportion of Gross National Product
(GNP) for public sector, i.e. tiny bureaucracy or civil service and so forth. The biggest expenses in peace time are that
king or queen and family, household, palaces, defence and other things. Although law and order were an obvious part
of government, it was in the hands of unpaid officers. It is clear that they were not realised when armies had to be
raised for war or to suppress their disorder.
Tudor
monarchs were expected to live off their own income, i.e. crown lands, feudal
dues, and customs duties. Their subjects were expected to pay ‘extraordinary’
revenue in emergencies, such as war scare or rebellions. That revenue was
ordinary, but it was not enough. In form of direct taxes were assessed on
property and income. Even in peace time, Elizabeth needed such grants from
Parliament. Although 16th government were increasingly
under-financed in her reign, that revenue was not keeping pace with inflation.
Extraordinary
revenue, such as forced loans, benevolences and tax granted, which was needed by
Parliament didn’t cover war costs. King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth had to
use own resources and borrow their money heavily. This has put a long-term
burden on future income. Tudors made no permanent additions to Crown’s
financial resources. But, monarchs could not access the financial resources of
better off citizens. Incomes of rich heavily is also under-assessed when direct
taxes were granted in the end of 16th century. Moreover, indirect
tax is lower than other of European states.
Local
government finances unlike those of 21stcentury. The example of what
local government finances have done badly was regular rate payments in 16th
century limited to poor relief, especially charity was funded, which is the most
of it. During 16th century government, ordinary income has been risen
from £100,00 to £300,000. Prices has been quadrupled in the same period. King Henry
VI has dissipated the royal demesne, which was the land held by the Crown. The Yorkist
kings and King Henry VII also has continued restoring it. Crown lands and
customs revenues has been established as the most important sources of revenues.
King
Henry VII has ensured that none of his feudal dues were overlooked, i.e.
wardship, marriage and relief. He has also received the ‘profits of justice’,
which was the fines from law courts, fee farms from corporate towns in return
for their privileges, and the profits from royal mint. These profits were traded
on his own account. Moreover, he has accepted the French pension from French
Government and exploited his right of purveyance.
After
all, King Henry VII’s government were not well-endowed so they have made a
surplus gradually by restrained spending especially avoiding wars. Even as early
parliament gave extraordinary have been granted and there was a forced loan. These
were mainly to pay for struggle against Simnel and Warbeck and to pay for
expeditions to Scotland, Brittany and France. These payday loan has been alarmed
by the Cornish rebellion of 1497, which was a popular uprising by the people of
Cornwall. They have wanted to raise money for a campaign against Scotland.
Until the 2nd half of his reign, he has felt that it was better to
‘live of his own’.
King
Henry VII has actually funded from subsidy, plundered in the Church and the
Great Debasement. His main costs were wars and palace building, which was a
part of subsidy. That subsidy has been introduced as a more productive tax
alternative to the ‘fifteenth an tenth’, which was a tax on movable property
granted by parliament on special occasions. Royal attempts to tax individual
incomes have rarely been allowed by parliament until 1513.
‘Subsidy’
has been firstly granted to pay for King Henry’s first French war. Subsidies has
also been granted in addition to ‘fifteenth and tenth’, which must be covered for
only 1/3 of war’s costs. Since 1334, ‘15th and 10th
century’ had declined to fixed amounts for each locality. But, subsidies has
not represented the ability of the rich to pay. In the 1522-1525, Henry VII has
been collected any forced loan for second war. Subsidies has been granted since
1523, but so far it is short of what Wolsey has wanted. This affected a subsequent
demand for gift of ‘Amicable Grant’, which has been withdrawn due to protest.
Not
just that, defence spending has also risen in 1530th century due to
break with Rome. In 1536, Cromwell’s solutions were to confiscate the Church
property. He has set up the Court of Augmentations to receive the proceeds. Since
1536-1544, he has taken the amount of money, which were the average of £112,000
per annum from his former monasteries. Many wars of 1540s has led to sale of
much monastic lands, which were rapidly consumed. So Henry VII has thrown away for
a chance to permanently double an ordinary Crown income.
In
1542-1546, the last war cost were £2 million. Extraordinary incomes has been
provided for £1 million, i.e. subsidies, forced loan and two benevolences. The
balances have been acquired through ordinary revenue, loan from Antwerp
exchange and sale of monastic land. This has started the Great Debasement of
coinage to make money for the war. Moreover, Duke of Somerset also has continued
these money in reign of Edward VI. Duke of Northumberland’s peace policy has also
led to measure of financial recovery and reduction of government debt.
Queen
Elizabeth I’s finances has been enhanced by the new Book of Rates, which were compiled
at end of Mary’s reign. These finances were created by increasing the customs
duties and extended number of dutiable goods. Customs revenues were £29,000 in 1556-1557
has risen to £83,000 in 1558-1559. The new reign has not continued such
financial enterprises. Actually, Queen Elizabeth and Lord Burghley were
stabilisers, not innovators.
Even
though the prices of it have risen, they have allowed the vital sources of
income to stagnate. But, the yields has been declined in real terms, the rents
for Crown tenants has not been increased in line with inflation. Not just that,
Crown lands has also been sold for quick cash so future revenues might be
decreased. Fortunately, Elizabeth has come to rely on subsidy to manage well as
even in peace time.
In
contrast to her timing, the value of subsidy has felt. This affect to the shire
tax assessors, who were reluctant to correctly assess income of rich neighbours.
Despite inflation, nobility has been assessed at less than under Henry VIII. Thus,
it has been needed for grants of subsidies in war for years after 1585. Of
which it, four subsidies have successfully been granted over as many years. These
subsidies, forced loans and benevolences have been covered less than half and
half cost of war. Beside of these, other revenues, such as vacant sees,
recusant fines, prize money and other unpopular devices such as ship money,
purveyance and sale of monopolies have also been covered.
But,
Parliament government has failed to properly tap its major income sources. Lack
of means were forced by Queen Elizabeth to strictly economise. In lieu of many salaries
that she used for various forms of patronage to reward her household and
government employees. The example of rewards were gifts of land, tax farms,
wardships and monopolies. Patronage sometimes regarded as tantamount to revenue
for the Crown, i.e. it has reduced salary bill. Even there was never enough to
satisfy all aspirants. These gifts sometimes could be reduced by Crown
resources and in case of monopolies could have serious political repercussions.
Central
government has not been funded by regular guaranteed income because they have not
been protected against inflation. The ordinary and extraordinary income have varied
in amount. King Henry VII only was a Tudor monarch, who has not died in debt. The
major cause was the wars, which royal subjects have reluctant to fund. Modest
but frequent subsidies, which it has been granted even for Queen Elizabeth’s
‘popular’ war against Spain might be resented, especially to the subjects, who
had to provide ships or ship money and ‘coat and conduct’ money for the English
armies.
In
the war and peace, parliament government has financed according to how much
money the people could be persuaded to surrender. Not all parliament grants
were collected due to passive resistance. Tudors had few means of coercion because
its government has feared resistance. Tudors have relied on unpaid officers to
govern the regions, e.g. the sheriffs, the Justice of Peace or JPs and the constables.
This might be serviced by the ruling classes, which were one reason for not
asking them to pay higher taxes because their support was indispensable.
Until
in the 1536, monarchs were happy for local affairs to be largely controlled by
local men, who were supervised by Privy Council. As a result, they have gotten the
only rate, which was a poor rate. That rate has been levied only in emergencies.
The Borough and parish authorities have made levies from well-off for specific
local purposes, such as militia, road, bridge repairs and other things, which
were no regular funding. It is very clear that Tudor ‘paternalism’ has been a
parental interest in subjects’ well-being. Absolutely, it has been derived from
concern for law and order.
It
is concluded that Tudors have paid for government in response to rebellion by
doing the five ways that involved:
1 1. Buy
Time means Tudor governments had limited resources available to them, e.g. no
police force and limited money. Their main weapon was their claim to be
legitimate ruler anointed with holy oil and chosen by God. Therefore, the
traitors were also condemned as sinners. Governments sought to buy time until
they have enough troops to call the rebels’ bluff and then they would declare
battle. More battles were expensive and uncertain, however they were generally
avoided. Therefore, many pardons were offered often on the eve of Battle.
The example of it were rebels at Stoke
(Simnel) and Blackheath (Cornish) were offered pardons on the eve of battle.
Pilgrimage of Grace 1536, King Henry VIII allowed the Duke of Norfolk to
negotiate. Western Rebellion has been led by Duke of Somerset, who sent a
series of letters to the rebel camp urging them to desist offering them a free
pardon if they did.
2. Propaganda
was widely used by governments in trying to persuade rebels to give up and
return home. Beside of it, they have also used written propaganda, which it had
limited impact as most could not read. Instead, it was designed to reinforce
moral of the government.
Examples are that Cromwell has employed a
team of writers to condemn rebellion in 1536. King Henry VIII personally has replied
to the letters where he has defended his policies. But, the Cranmer has attacked
the rebels during 1549 and the Somerset has also sent preachers to appeal at
their camp on Mousehold Heath, near Norwich.
3. Pre-emptive
Measures were used by Monarchs to weaken the power of rebels before they became
too dangerous. Examples are that King Henry VII has used a papal bull to ex-communicate
the rebels on the eve of the Battle of Stoke and Blackheath to encourage many
rebels to surrendered rather than risk eternal damnation. Queen Mary has also
sent letters prior to the outbreak of the Wyatt rebellion denouncing the plot. Queen
Elizabeth has heard some rumours in the summer in 1569 that there are several
disgruntled nobles. Then, Queen Elizabeth has acted quickly and Norfolk has denied
permission to marry. Mary has also moved 30 miles south to Coventry.
4. The
decision to raise troops was not taken lightly. It was expensive and if they
were not paid they were as much a threat as the rebels themselves. They always
relied on the nobility and gentry to provide retainers. The examples of what
they has been doing were the Somerset had to carefully deploy his troops as he
faced rebellion across the country. They had to focus on those near London, which
is why the Western and Kett’s took so long to suppress. This was also why he
was the only ruler to employ foreign mercenaries. King Henry VII also took
action against retaining as for him, it threatened his throne in those years
immediately after war.
5. Trials
and retribution were two reasons that those rebels who indulged and knew that
the penalty, were death, but not all rebels were subsequently executed. The
examples of it were King Henry VII was quietly lenient often using bonds,
recognisances, attainders and fines. In the reign of King Henry VIII, Amicable
Grant 18 have taken for trial and then might be released and paid for their compensation.
In Elizabeth’s reign, 300 villages has burned
and 450 of 700 rebels has been executed in New England.
